Meaning of the Word 'Caliph'
The word 'Caliph' is the English form of the Arabic word 'Khalifa,' which
is short for
Khalifatu Rasulil-lah. The latter expression
means
Successor to the Messenger of God, the Holy Prophet
Muhammad
. The title 'Khalifatu Rasulil-lah'. was first
used for Abu Bakr, who was elected head of the Muslim community after the
death of the Prophet.
The Significance of the Caliphate
The mission of Prophet Muhammad
, like that of the
earlier messengers of God, was to call people to the worship of and
submission to the One True God. In practice, submission to God means to
obey His injunctions as given in the Holy Qur'an and as exemplified by
Sunnah (the practice of the Prophet). As successor to the Prophet, the
Caliph was the head of the Muslim community and his primary responsibility
was to continue in the path of the Prophet. Since religion was perfected and
the door of Divine revelation was closed at the death of the Prophet, the
Caliph was to make all laws in accordance with the Qur'an and the
Sunnah. He was a ruler over Muslims but not their sovereign since
sovereignty belongs to God alone. He was to be obeyed as long as he obeyed
God. He was responsible for creating and maintaining conditions under which
it would be easy for Muslims to live according to Islamic principles, and
to see that justice was done to all. Abu Bakr, at the time he accepted the
caliphate, stated his position thus:
"The weak among you shall be strong with me until their rights have been
vindicated; and the strong among you shall he weak with me until, if the
Lord wills, I have taken what is due from them... Obey me as long as I obey
God and His Messenger. When I disobey Him and His Prophet, then obey me
not."
The Rightly-Guided Caliphs (Al-Khulafa-ur-Rashidun)
Those Caliphs who truly followed in the Prophet's foot steps are called
'The Rightly-Guided Caliphs' (Al-Khulafa-ur Rashidun in Arabic). They are
the first four Caliphs: Abu Bakr, 'Umar, Uthman and Ali; Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz; and seven Caliphs who did
not appear yet, the last one of them is
Al-Mahdi. All the fist four were
among thc earliest and closest Companions of the Prophet
.
They lived simple and righteous lives and strove hard for the religion of
God. Their justice was impartial, their treatment of others was kind and
merciful, and they were one with the people - the first among equals. After
these four, the later Caliphs assumed the manners of kings and emperors and
the true spirit of equality of ruler and ruled diminished to a considerable
extent in the political life of Muslims.
It should be clearly understood that the mission of Prophet Muhammad
, and hence that of the Rightly-Guided Caliphs, was not
political, social or economic reform, although such reforms were a logical
consequence of the success of this mission, nor the unity of a nation and
the establishment of an empire, although the nation did unite and vast
areas came under one administration, nor the spread of a civilization or
culture, although many civilizations and cultures developed, but only to
deliver the message of God to all the peoples of the world and to invite
them to submit to Him, while being the foremost among those who submitted.
What About the Present?
The primary responsibility of an Islamic government is still the same as it
was in the days of the early Caliphs: to make all laws in accordance with
the Qur'an and the Sunnah, to make positive efforts to create and maintain
conditions under which it will be possible and easy for Muslims to live an
Islamic life, to secure impartial and speedy justice for all, and to strive
hard in the path of God. Any government which is committed to such a policy
is truly following the message delivered by the Prophet
.
"If I were to take a friend other than my Lord, I would take Abu Bakr as a
friend." (Hadith)
Election to the Caliphate
The Prophet's closest Companion, Abu Bakr, was not present when the Holy
Prophet
breathed his last in the apartment of his beloved
wife of later years, Aisha, Abu Bakr's daughter. When he came to know of
the Prophet's passing, Abu Bakr hurried to the house of sorrow.
"How blessed was your life and how beatific is your death,"
he whispered as he kissed the cheek of his beloved friend and master who
now was no more.
When Abu Bakr came out of the Prophet's apartment and broke the news,
disbelief and dismay gripped the community of Muslims in Medina. Muhammad
had been the leader, the guide and the bearer of Divine
revelation through whom they had been brought from idolatry and barbarism
into the way of God. How could he die? Even Umar, one of the bravest and
strongest of the Prophet's Companions, lost his composure and drew his sword
and threatened to kill anyone who said that the Prophet was dead. Abu Bakr
gently pushed him aside, ascended the steps of the lectern in the mosque
and addressed the people, saying
"O people, verily whoever worshipped Muhammad, behold! Muhammad is indeed
dead. But whoever worships God, behold! God is alive and will never die."
And then he concluded with a verse from the Qur'an:
"And Muhammad is but a Messenger. Many Messengers have gone before him;
if then he dies or is killed, will you turn back upon your heels?"
[3:144]
On hearing these words, the people were consoled. Despondency gave place to
confidence and tranquility. This critical moment had passed. But the Muslim
community was now faced with an extremely serious problem: that of choosing
a leader. After some discussion among the Companions of the Prophet who
had assembled in order to select a leader, it became apparent that no one
was better suited for this responsibility than Abu Bakr. A portion of the
speech the First Caliph gave after his election has already been quoted in
the introduction.
Abu Bakr's Life
Abu Bakr ('The Owner of Camels') was not his real name. He acquired this
name later in life because of his great interest in raising camels. His
real name was Abdul Ka'aba ('Slave of Ka'aba'), which Muhammad
later changed to Abdullah ('Slave of God'). The Prophet also gave him
the title of 'Siddiq' - 'The Testifier to the Truth.'
Abu Bakr was a fairly wealthy merchant, and before he embraced Islam, was a
respected citizen of Mecca. He was three years younger than Muhammad
and some natural affinity drew them together from earliest child
hood. He remained the closest Companion of the Prophet all through the
Prophet's life. When Muhammad first invited his closest friends and
relatives to Islam, Abu Bakr was among the earliest to accept it. He also
persuaded Uthman and Bilal to accept Islam. In the early days of the
Prophet's mission, when the handful of Muslims were subjected to relentless
persecution and torture, Abu Bakr bore his full share of hardship. Finally
when God's permission came to emigrate from Mecca, he was the one chosen by
the Prophet to accompany him on the dangerous journey to Medina. In the
numerous battles which took place during the life of the Prophet, Abu Bakr
was always by his side. Once, he brought all his belongings to the Prophet,
who was raising money for the defense of Medina. The Prophet asked "
Abu
Bakr, what did you leave for your family?" The reply came: "
God and His
Prophet."
Even before Islam, Abu Bakr was known to be a man of upright character and
amiable and compassionate nature. All through his life he was sensitive to
human suffering and kind to the poor and helpless. Even though he was
wealthy, he lived very simply and spent his money for charity, for freeing
slaves and for the cause of Islam. He often spent part of the night in
supplication and prayer. He shared with his family a cheerful and
affectionate home life.
Abu-Bakr's Caliphate
Such, then, was the man upon whom the burden of leadership fell at the most
sensitive period in the history of the Muslims.
As the news of the Prophet's death spread, a number of tribes rebelled and
refused to pay Zakat (poor-due), saying that this was due only to the
Prophet
. At the same time a number of impostors claimed
that the prophethood had passed to them after Muhammad and they raised the
standard of revolt. To add to all this, two powerful empires, the Eastern
Roman and the Persian, also threatened the new-born Islamic state at
Medina.
Under these circumstances, many Companions of the Prophet, including Umar,
advised Abu Bakr to make concessions to the Zakat evaders, at least for a
time. The new Caliph disagreed. He insisted that the Divine Law cannot be
divided, that there is no distinction between the obligations of Zakat and
Salat (prayer), and that any compromise with the injunctions of God would
eventually erode the foundations of Islam. Umar and others were quick to
realize their error of judgment. The revolting tribes attacked Medina but
the Muslims were prepared. Abu Bakr himself led the charge, forcing them to
retreat. He then made a relentless war on the false claimants to
prophethood, most of whom submitted and again professed lslam.
The threat from the Roman Empire had actually arisen earlier, during the
Prophet's lifetime. The Prophet had organized an army under the command of
Usama, the son of a freed slave. The army had not gone far when the Prophet
had fallen ill so they stopped. After the death of the Prophet
, the
question was raised whether the army should be sent again or should remain
for the defence of Medina. Again Abu Bakr showed a firm determination. He
said, "
I shall send Usama's army on its way as ordered by the Prophet, even
if I am left alone."
The final instructions he gave to Usama prescribed a code of conduct in war
which remains unsurpassed to this day. Part of his instructions to the
Muslim army were:
"Do not be deserters, nor be guilty of disobedience. Do not kill an old
man, a woman or a child. Do not injure date palms and do not cut down fruit
trees. Do not slaughter any sheep or cows or camels except for food. You
will encounter persons who spend their lives in monasteries. Leave them
alone and do not molest them."
Khalid bin Waleed had been chosen by the Prophet
on
several occasions to lead Muslim armies. A man of supreme courage and a
born leader, his military genius came to full flower during the Caliphate
of Abu Bakr. Throughout Abu Bakr's reign Khalid led his troops from one
victory to another against the attacking Romans.
Another contribution of Abu Bakr to the cause of Islam was the collection
and compilation of the verses of the Qur'an.
Abu Bakr died on 21 Jamadi-al Akhir, 13 A.H. (23 August 634 A.C.), at the
age of sixty-three, and was buried by the side of the Holy Prophet
. His caliphate had been of a mere twenty-seven months
duration. In this brief span, however, Abu Bakr had managed, by the Grace
of God, to strengthen and consolidate his community and the state, and to
secure the Muslims against the perils which had threatened their existence.
"God has placed truth upon Umar's tongue and heart."
(Hadith)
'Umar's Life
During his last illness Abu Bakr had conferred with his people,
particularly the more eminent among them. After this meeting they chose
'Umar as his successor. 'Umar was born into a respected Quraish family
thirteen years after the birth of Muhammad
. Umar's
family was known for its extensive knowledge of genealogy. When he grew
up, 'Umar was proficient in this branch of knowledge as well as in
swordsmanship, wrestling and the art of speaking. He also learned to read
and write while still a child, a very rare thing in Mecca at that
time. 'Umar earned his living as a merchant. His trade took him to many
foreign lands and he met all kinds of people. This experience gave him an
insight into the affairs and problems of men. 'Umar's personality was
dynamic, self-assertive, frank and straight forward. He always spoke
whatever was in his mind even if it displeased others.
'Umar was twenty-seven when the Prophet
proclaimed his
mission. The ideas Muhammad
was preaching enraged him as much as they did
the other notables of Mecca. He was just as bitter against anyone accepting
Islam as others among the Quraish. When his slave-girl accepted Islam he
beat her until he himself was exhausted and told her, "I have stopped
because I am tired, not out of pity for you." The story of his embracing
Islam is an interesting one. One day, full of anger against the Prophet, he
drew his sword and set out to kill him. A friend met him on the way. When
'Umar told him what he planned to do, his friend informed him that 'Umar's
own sister, Fatima, and her husband had also accepted Islam. 'Umar went
straight to his sister's house where he found her reading from pages of the
Qur'an. He fell upon her and beat her mercilessly. Bruised and bleeding,
she told her brother, "Umar, you can do what you like, but you cannot turn
our hearts away from Islam." These words produced a strange effect upon
'Umar. What was this faith that made even weak women so strong of heart?
He asked his sister to show him what she had been reading; he was at once
moved to the core by the words of the Qur'an and immediately grasped their
truth. He went straight to the house where the Prophet
was staying and
vowed allegiance to him.
Umar made no secret of his acceptance of Islam. He gathered the Muslims and
offered prayers at the Ka'aba. This boldness and devotion of an influential
citizen of Mecca raised the morale of the small community of
Muslims. Nonetheless 'Umar was also subjected to privations, and when
permission for emigration to Medina came, he also left Mecca. The soundness
of 'Umar's judgment, his devotion to the Prophet
, his
outspokenness and uprightness won for him a trust and confidence from the
Prophet which was second only to that given to Abu Bakr. The Prophet gave
him the title 'Farooq' which means the 'Separator of Truth from False
hood.' During the Caliphate of Abu Bakr, 'Umar was his closest assistant
and adviser. When Abu Bakr died, all the people of Medina swore allegiance
to 'Umar, and on 23 Jamadi-al-Akhir, 13 A.H., he was proclaimed Caliph.
'Umar's Caliphate
After taking charge of his office, 'Umar spoke to the Muslims of Medina:
"...O people, you have some rights on me which you can always claim. One
of your rights is that if anyone of you comes to me with a claim, he should
leave satisfied. Another of your rights is that you can demand that I take
nothing unjustly from the revenues of the State. You can also demand
that... I fortify your frontiers and do not put you into danger. It is also
your right that if you go to battle I should look after your families as a
father would while you are away.
O people, remain conscious of God, forgive me my faults and help me in my
task. Assist me in enforcing what is good and forbidding what is
evil. Advise me regarding the obligations that have been imposed upon me by
God..."
The most notable feature of 'Umar's caliphate was the vast expansion of
Islam. Apart from Arabia, Egypt, Iraq, Palestine and Iran also came under
the protection of the Islamic government. But the greatness of 'Umar
himself lies in the quality of his rule. He gave a practical meaning to the
Qur'anic injunction:
"O you who believe, stand out firmly for justice as witnesses to God, even
as against yourselves, or your parents, or your kin, and whether it
concerns rich or poor, for God can best protect both."
[4:135]
Once a woman brought a claim against the Caliph 'Umar. When 'Umar appeared
on trial before the judge, the judge stood up as a sign of respect toward
him. 'Umar reprimanded him, saying, "This is the first act of injustice you
did to this woman!"
He insisted that his appointed governors live simple lives, keep no guard
at their doors and be accessible to the people at all times, and he himself
set the example for them. Many times foreign envoys and messengers sent to
him by his generals found him resting under a palm tree or praying in the
mosque among the people, and it was difficult for them to distinguish which
man was the Caliph. He spent many a watchful night going about the streets
of Medina to see whether anyone needed help or assistance. The general
social and moral tone of the Muslim society at that time is
well-illustrated by the words of an Egyptian who was sent to spy on the
Muslims during their Egyptian campaign. He reported:
"
I have seen a people, every one of whom loves death more than he loves
life. They cultivate humility rather than pride. None is given to material
ambitions. Their mode of living is simple... Their commander is their
equal. They make no distinction between superior and inferior, between
master and slave. When the time of prayer approaches, none remains
behind..."
'Umar gave his government an administrative structure. Departments of
treasury, army and public revenues were established. Regular salaries were
set up for soldiers. A popuation census was held. Elaborate land surveys
were conducted to assess equitable taxes. New cities were founded. The
areas which came under his rule were divided into provinces and governors
were appointed. New roads were laid, canals were lug and wayside hotels
were built. Provision was made for he support of the poor and the needy
from public funds. He defined, by precept and by example, the rights and
privileges of non-Muslims, an example of which is the following contract
with the Christians of Jerusalem:
"
This is the protection which the servant of God, 'Umar, the Ruler of the
Believers has granted to the people of Eiliya [Jerusalem]. The protection
is for their lives and properties, their churches and crosses, their sick
and healthy and for all their coreligionists. Their churches shall not be
used for habitation, nor shall they be demolished, nor shall any injury be
done to them or to their compounds, or to their crosses, nor shall their
properties be injured in any way. There shall be no compulsion for these
people in the matter of religion, nor shall any of them suffer any injury
on account of religion... Whatever is written herein is under the covenant
of God and the responsibility of His Messenger, of the Caliphs and of the
believers, and shall hold good as long as they pay Jizya [the tax for their
defense] imposed on them."
Those non-Muslims who took part in defense together with the Muslims were
exempted from paying Jizya, and when the Muslims had to retreat from a city
whose non-Muslim citizens had paid this tax for their defense, the tax was
returned to the non-Muslims. The old, the poor and the disabled of Muslims
and non-Muslims alike were provided for from the public treasury and from
the Zakat funds.
'Umar's Death
In 23 A.H., when Umar returned to Medina from Hajj;, he raised his hands
and prayed, "
O God! I am advanced in years, my bones are weary, my powers are
declining, and the people for whom I am responsible have spread far and
wide. Summon me back to Thyself, my lord!" Some time later, when 'Umar went
to the mosque to lead a prayer, a Magian named Abu Lulu Feroze, who had a
grudge against 'Umar on a personal matter, attacked him with a dagger and
stabbed him several times. Umar reeled and fell to the ground. When he
learned that the assassin was a Magian, he sid, "
Thank God he is not a
Muslim."
'Umar died in the first week of Muharram, 24 A.H., and was buried by the
side of the Holy Prophet
.
"Every Prophet has an assistant, and my assistant will be Uthman." (Hadith)
Uthman's Election
When 'Umar fell under the assassin's dagger, before he died the people asked
him to nominate his successor. 'Umar appointed a committee consisting of
six of the ten companions of the Prophet
about whom the
Prophet had said, "They are the people of Heaven" - Ali, Uthman, Abdul
Rahman, Sa'ad, Al-Zubayr and Talha - to select the next Caliph from among
themselves. He also outlined the procedure to be followed if any
differences of opinion should arise. Abdul Rahman withdrew his name. He was
then authorized by the committee to nominate the Caliph. After two days of
discussion among the candidates and after the opinions of the Muslims in
Medina had been ascertained, the choice was finally limited to Uthman and
Ali. Abdul Rahman came to the mosque together with other Muslims, and after
a brief speech and questioning of the two men, swore allegiance to
Uthman. All those present did the same, and Uthman became the third Caliph
of Islam in the month of Muharram, 24 A.H.
Uthman's Life
Uthman bin Affan was born seven years after the Holy Prophet
. He belonged to the Omayyad branch of the Quraish tribe. He learned to
read and write at an early age, and as a young man became a successful
merchant. Even before Islam Uthman had been noted for his truthfulness and
integrity. He and Abu Bakr were close friends, and it was Abu Bakr who
brought him to Islam when he was thirty-four years of age. Some years later
he married the Prophet's second daughter, Ruqayya. In spite of his wealth
and position, his relatives subjected him to torture because he had
embraced Islam, and he was forced to emigrate to Abyssinia. Some time
later he returned to Mecca but soon migrated to Medina with the other
Muslims. In Medina his business again began to flourish and he regained his
former prosperity. Uthman's generosity had no limits. On various occasions
he spent a great portion of his wealth for the welfare of the Muslims, for
charity and for equipping the Muslim armies. That is why he came to be
known as 'Ghani' meaning 'Generous.'
Uthman's wife, Ruqayya was seriously ill just before the Battle of
Badr and he was excused by the Prophet
from
participating in the battle. The illness Ruqayya proved fatal, leaving
Uthman deeply grieved. The Prophet was moved and offered Uthman the hand of
another of his daughters, Kulthum. Because he had the high privilege of
having two daughters of the Prophet as wives Uthman was known as '
The
Possessor of the Two Lights.'
Uthman participated in the Battles of Uhud and the Trench. After the
encounter of the Trench, the Prophet
determined to
perform Hajj and sent Uthman as his emissary to the Quraish in Mecca, who
detained him. The episode ended in a treaty with the Meccans known as the
Treaty of Hudaibiya.
The portrait we have of Uthman is of an unassuming, honest, mild, generous
and very kindly man, noted especially for his modesty and his piety. He
often spent part of the night in prayer, fasted every second or third day,
performed hajj every year, and looked after the needy of the whole
community. In spite of his wealth, he lived very simply and slept on bare
sand in the courtyard of the Prophet's mosque. Uthman knew the Qur'an from
memory and had an intimate knowledge of the context and circumstances
relating to each verse.
Uthman's Caliphate
During Uthman's rule the characteristics of Abu Bakr's and Umar's
caliphates - impartial justice for all, mild and humane policies, striving
in the path of God, and the expansion of Islam - continued. Uthman's realm
extended in the west to Morocco, in the east to Afghanistan, and in the
north to Armenia and Azerbaijan. During his caliphate a navy was organized,
administrative divisions of the state were revised, and many public
projects were expanded and completed. Uthman sent prominent Companions of
the Prophet
as his personal deputies to various provinces
to scrutinize the conduct of officials and the condition of the people.
Uthman's most notable contribution to the religion of God was the
compilation of a complete and authoritative text of the Qur'an. A large
number of copies of this text were made and distributed all over the Muslim
world.
Uthman ruled for twelve years. The first six years were marked by internal
peace and tranquility, but during the second half of his caliphate a
rebellion arose. The Jews and the Magians, taking advantage of
dissatisfaction among the people, began conspiring against Uthman, and by
publicly airing their complaints and grievances, gained so much sympathy
that it became difficult to distinguish friend from foe.
It may seem surprising that a ruler of such vast territories, whose armies
were matchless, was unable to deal with these rebels. If Uthman had wished,
the rebellion could have been crushed at the very moment it began. But he
was reluctant to be the first to shed the blood of Muslims (especially Sahaba), however
rebellious they might be. No one would ever expected what happend later. He preferred to reason with them, to persuade
them with kindness and generosity. He well remembered hearing the Prophet
say, "
Once the sword is unsheathed among my followers, it
will not be sheathed until the Last Day."
The rebels demanded that he abdicate and some of the Companions advised him
to do so. He would gladly have followed this course of action, but again he
was bound by a solemn pledge he had given to the Prophet. "
Perhaps God will
clothe you with a shirt, Uthman" the Prophet had told him once, "
and if the
people want you to take it off, do not take it off for them." Uthman said
to a well-wisher on a day when his house was surrounded by the rebels,
"
God's Messenger made a covenant with me and I shall show endurance in
adhering to it."
After a long siege, the rebels broke into Uthman's house and murdered
him. When the first assassin's sword struck Uthman, he was reciting the
verse,
"Verily, God sufficeth thee; He is the All-Hearing, the All-Knowing"
[2:137]
Uthman breathed his last on the afternoon of Friday, 17 Dhul Hijja, 35
A.H. (June. (656 A.C.). He was eighty-four years old. The power of tHe
rebels was so great that Uthman's body lay unburied until Saturday
night when he was buried in his blood-stained clothes, the shroud which
befits all martyrs in the cause of God.
"You [Ali] are my brother in this world and the next." (Hadith)
Ali's Election
After Uthman's martyrdom, the office of the caliphate remained unfilled for
two or three days. Many people insisted that Ali should take up the
office, but he was embarrassed by the fact that the people who pressed him
hardest were the rebels, and he therefore declined at first. When the
notable Companions of the Prophet
urged him, however, he
finally agreed.
Ali's Life
Ali bin Abi Talib was the first cousin of the Prophet
. More than that, he had grown up in the Prophet's own household, later
married his youngest daughter, Fatima, and remained in closest association
with him for nearly thirty years.
Ali was ten years old when the Divine Message came to Muhammad
. One night he saw the Prophet and his wife Khadijah bowing and
prostrating. He asked the Prophet about the meaning of their actions. The
Prophet told him that they were praying to God Most High and that Ali too
should accept Islam. Ali said that he would first like to ask his father
about it. He spent a sleepless night, and in the morning he went to the
Prophet and said, "
When God created me He did not consult my father, so
why should I consult my father in order to serve God?" and he accepted the
truth of Muhammad's message.
When the Divine command came, "
And warn thy nearest relatives"
[26:214],
Muhammad
invited his relatives for a meal. After it was
finished, he addressed them and asked, "
Who will join me in the cause of
God?" There was utter silence for a while, and then Ali stood up. "I am the
youngest of all present here," he said, "My eyes trouble me because they
are sore and my legs are thin and weak, but I shall join you and help you
in whatever way I can." The assembly broke up in derisive laughter. But
during the difficult wars in Mecca, Ali stood by these words and faced all
the hardships to which the Muslims were subjected. He slept in the bed of
the Prophet when the Quraish planned to murder Muhammad. It was he to whom
the Prophet entrusted, when he left Mecca, the valuables which had been
given to him for safekeeping, to be returned to their owners.
Apart from the expedition of Tabuk, Ali fought in all the early battles of
Islam with great distinction, particularly in the expedition of Khaybar. It
is said that in the Battle of Uhud he received more than sixteen wounds.
The Prophet
loved Ali dearly and called him by many
fond names. Once the Prophet found him sleeping in the dust. He brushed
off Ali's clothes and said fondly, "
Wake up, Abu Turab (Father of Dust)."
The Prophet also gave him the title of 'Asadullah' ('Lion of God').
Ali's humility, austerity, piety, deep knowledge of the Qur'an and his
sagacity gave him great distinction among the Prophet's Companions. Abu
Bakr, 'Umar and Uthman consulted him frequently during their
caliphates. Many times 'Umar had made him his vice-regent at Medina when he
was away. Ali was also a great scholar of Arabic literature and pioneered
in the field of grammar and rhetoric. His speeches, sermons and letters
served for generations afterward as models of literary expression. Many of
his wise and epigrammatic sayings have been preserved. Ali thus had a rich
and versatile personality. In spite of these attainments he remained a
modest and humble man. Once during his caliphate when he was going about
the marketplace, a man stood up in respect and followed him. "Do not do
it," said Ali. "Such manners are a temptation for a ruler and a disgrace
for the ruled."
Ali and his household lived extremely simple and austere lives. Sometimes
they even went hungry themselves because of Ali's great generosity, and
none who asked for help was ever turned away from his door. His plain,
austere style of living did not change even when he was ruler over a vast
domain.
Ali's Caliphate
As mentioned previously, Ali accepted the caliphate very reluctantly.
Uthman's murder and the events surrounding it were a symptom, and also
became a cause, of civil strife on a large scale. All
governors gave the pledge to Ali except Muawiya, the governor of
Sham
(Great Syria). Muawiya declined to obey until Uthman's blood was
avenged. His decision was based on the fact that he is not required to
obey the Caliph until he (Ali) is able to enforce the rule of Allah.
Muawiya was the cuisine of 'Uthman, so he was the responsible of asking
Ali to bring the murderers to trial.
The Prophet's widow Aisha also took the position that Ali should first
bring
the murderers to trial. Due to the chaotic conditions during the last
days
of Uthman it was very difficult to establish the identity of the
murderers,
and Ali refused to punish anyone whose guilt was not lawfully proved.
The pretext for the meeting of the armies on the day of the Camel
and the day of Siffin was the demand for `Uthman's killers on the part
of `A'isha and Mu`awiya, but the winds of war were fanned by the
followers of Abdullah bin Saba' the Jew, from inside all three camps
until events escaped the control of the Companions. It is related that
`Ali, `A'isha , and Mu`awiya often expressed astonishment at the
dissension and opposition that surrounded them.
However, even though the era of Ali's caliphate was marred by civil strife,
he nevertheless introduced a number of reforms, particularly in the levying
and collecting of revenues.
It was the fortieth year of Hijra. A fanatical group called Kharijites,
consisting of people who had broken away from Ali due to his compromise
with Muawiya, claimed that neither Ali, the Caliph, nor Muawiya, the ruler
of Syria, nor Amr bin al-Aas, the ruler of Egypt, were worthy of rule. In
fact, they went so far as to say that the true caliphate came to an end
with 'Umar and that Muslims should live without any ruler over them except
God. They vowed to kill all three rulers, and assassins were dispatched in
three directions. While `Ali, `A'isha , and Mu`awiya were all fighting in the
cuase of Allah and did not want to shed any blood, Kharijites on the other side
were dissenters who love to kill innocent Muslims. It is important to notice
that there was no Sahaba at all in the army of Kharijites.
The assassins who were deputed to kill Muawiya and Amr did not succeed and
were captured and executed, but Ibn-Muljim, the assassin who was
commissioned to kill Ali, accomplished his task. One morning when Ali was
absorbed in prayer in a mosque, Ibn-Muljim stabbed him with a poisoned
sword. On the 20th of Ramadan, 40 A.H., died the great Companion.
May God Most High be pleased with them and grant to them His eternal reward.
With the death of Ali, the first and most notable phase in the history of
Muslim peoples came to an end. All through this period it had been the Book
of God and the practices of His Messenger - that is, thc Qur'an and the
Sunnah - which had guided the leaders and the led, set the standards of their
moral conduct and inspired their actions. It was the time when the ruler
and the ruled, the rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, were
uniformly subject to the Divine Law. It was an epoch of freedom and
equality, of God-consciousness and humility, of social justice which
recognized no privileges, and of an impartial law which accepted no
pressure groups or vested interests.
After Ali, Muslims agreed to give the caliphate to Muawiya. Muawiya tried to
continue on the same way as The Rightly-Guided Caliphs, but he was ruling a different generation of people
Kalaupun dia bercakap aku tak pernah suka sangat,Tapi kata kata dia tentang hal ini, Benar dan sebnarnya Benar, Walaupun pahit untuk dipolitik kan tapi kerana ianya hak, aku mempertahankan kata ini.
Naib Presiden PKR N Surendran (kanan) berkata, kenyataan yang "menghina orang Hindu dan agama mereka" itu dikesan dalam video 5 minit di Youtube.
Kedai berhala itu kata Zulkifli baru sahaja dilanda banjir dan berhala-berhala yang dijual turut rosak.
"Sikap
tidak mesra pelabur dan gagal mengumumkan dasar serta perbelanjaan
fiskal menyebabkan pelabur asing mengambil sikap tunggu dan lihat," kata
Mukhriz kepada pemberita di Jerlun, hari ini.
medan penglihatan normal 
medan penglihatan berkurangan
medan penglihatan kecil & kabur 
